Dr. D. Elisabeth Glassco<p>More Resources and Books</p><p><a href="https://penntoday.upenn.edu/news/look-history-affirmative-action-mary-frances-berry" rel="nofollow noopener" translate="no" target="_blank"><span class="invisible">https://</span><span class="ellipsis">penntoday.upenn.edu/news/look-</span><span class="invisible">history-affirmative-action-mary-frances-berry</span></a></p><p>Jerome Karabel, The Chosen, Harper, 2006</p><p>Randall Kennedy, For Discrimination: Race, Affirmative Action, and the Law, Pantheon , 2013</p><p>Ira Katznelson, When Affirmative Action Was White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-Century America., Liveright, 2023</p><p> 34/34</p><p><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/TeachHistory" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>TeachHistory</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/BlackMastodon" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>BlackMastodon</span></a><br><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/Histodons" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>Histodons</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/History" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>History</span></a></p>
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Dr. D. Elisabeth Glassco<p>Throughout the racial history of the United States, significant efforts aimed at promoting the progress of African Americans and rectifying the impact of racial subordination have consistently faced allegations of "reverse discrimination" and perceived unfair "preference." While progress has been made in dismantling long-held prejudices the underlying roots of institutionalized racism in America remain deeply embedded..</p><p> 32/34</p><p><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/TeachHistory" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>TeachHistory</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/BlackMastodon" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>BlackMastodon</span></a><br><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/Histodons" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>Histodons</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/History" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>History</span></a></p>
Dr. D. Elisabeth Glassco<p>Over the years, the concept and interpretation of affirmative action have evolved through various legal decisions, deviating from initial expectations held by educational institutions. Universities are no longer permitted to solely rely on affirmative action as a means to address centuries of racism in the United States. </p><p> 31/34</p><p><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/TeachHistory" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>TeachHistory</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/BlackMastodon" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>BlackMastodon</span></a><br><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/Histodons" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>Histodons</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/History" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>History</span></a></p>
Dr. D. Elisabeth Glassco<p>The assessment of affirmative action’s purpose and effectiveness differs among individuals with different ideological perspectives. Chief Justice John Roberts expressed a conservative viewpoint when he famously stated in 2007 that to eliminate racial discrimination, one must refrain from discriminating based on race.</p><p> 30/34</p><p><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/TeachHistory" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>TeachHistory</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/BlackMastodon" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>BlackMastodon</span></a><br><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/Histodons" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>Histodons</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/History" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>History</span></a></p>
Dr. D. Elisabeth Glassco<p>On June 29, 2023, SCOTUS <br>invalidated significant aspects of Affirmative Action in education. The court’s decision responded to lawsuits against Harvard University and the University of North Carolina, where allegations of discriminatory practices were raised. Opponents of affirmative action argued that these elite institutions, while aiming to support Black Americans & Latinos, were unfairly treating people of white and Asian ancestry.</p><p> 29/34</p><p><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/TeachHistory" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>TeachHistory</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/BlackMastodon" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>BlackMastodon</span></a><br><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/Histodons" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>Histodons</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/History" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>History</span></a></p>
Dr. D. Elisabeth Glassco<p>In Fisher, the Supreme Court, in a 4-3 decision, upheld the constitutionality of the university's race-conscious admissions policy, affirming that it met the strict scrutiny standard. This ruling established important precedent regarding the use of race in college admissions and emphasized the need for universities to narrowly tailor their affirmative action policies to achieve diversity while ensuring individual rights are protected.</p><p> 28/34</p><p><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/TeachHistory" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>TeachHistory</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/BlackMastodon" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>BlackMastodon</span></a><br><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/Histodons" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>Histodons</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/History" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>History</span></a></p>
Dr. D. Elisabeth Glassco<p>Fisher v. University of Texas was a significant legal case that reached the US Supreme Court in 2016. The case centered around the University of Texas at Austin's undergraduate admissions policy, which considered race as a factor in the admissions process. The plaintiff, Abigail Fisher, argued that she was denied admission based on her race, which she claimed violated her rights under the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. </p><p> 27/34</p><p><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/TeachHistory" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>TeachHistory</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/BlackMastodon" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>BlackMastodon</span></a><br><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/Histodons" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>Histodons</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/History" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>History</span></a></p>
Dr. D. Elisabeth Glassco<p>In 2014, President Barack Obama signed an executive order, known as Johnson's Executive Order 11246, that broadened the scope of protected classes for federal contractors. The order extended the existing protections beyond race, color, religion, sex, and national origin to include sexual orientation as well. </p><p> 26/34</p><p><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/TeachHistory" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>TeachHistory</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/BlackMastodon" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>BlackMastodon</span></a><br><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/Histodons" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>Histodons</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/History" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>History</span></a></p>
Dr. D. Elisabeth Glassco<p>In the case of Grutter v. Bollinger (2003), the focus revolved around Barbara Grutter, a white applicant to the University of Michigan Law School. In a similar 5-4 verdict, the court concluded that the university's individualized evaluation of candidates, wherein race served as a limited factor among many in the decision-making process, upheld the legality of its admissions procedure.</p><p> 25/34</p><p><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/TeachHistory" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>TeachHistory</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/BlackMastodon" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>BlackMastodon</span></a><br><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/Histodons" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>Histodons</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/History" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>History</span></a></p>
Dr. D. Elisabeth Glassco<p>In a narrow 5-4 decision, the Supreme Court determined in Regents of the University of California v. Bakke that while strict quotas violated the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment, race could still be considered as a factor in the admissions process to foster educational diversity. This ruling allowed for the consideration of race as one element among others in college applications.</p><p> 24/34</p><p><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/TeachHistory" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>TeachHistory</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/BlackMastodon" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>BlackMastodon</span></a><br><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/Histodons" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>Histodons</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/History" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>History</span></a></p>
Dr. D. Elisabeth Glassco<p>Subsequently, affirmative action began to acquire widespread negative associations propagated by the media and individuals who sought its elimination or opposed its principles. This resistance caught the attention of the Supreme Court in 1978, when the case of Regents of the University of California v. Bakke emerged. </p><p>23/34</p><p><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/TeachHistory" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>TeachHistory</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/BlackMastodon" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>BlackMastodon</span></a><br><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/Histodons" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>Histodons</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/History" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>History</span></a></p>
Dr. D. Elisabeth Glassco<p>As elucidated by the Virginia Historical Society, the challenges emerged due to the phenomenon of white families relocating to private academies & suburban areas, making it difficult to achieve racial balance w/o extensive busing of students across city-county boundaries. These circumstances paved the way for strong white backlash against what was perceived as judicially-driven social engineering.</p><p> 22/34</p><p><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/TeachHistory" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>TeachHistory</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/BlackMastodon" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>BlackMastodon</span></a><br><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/Histodons" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>Histodons</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/History" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>History</span></a></p>
Dr. D. Elisabeth Glassco<p>Affirmative action's progression into the realm of education took a significant stride with the SCOTUS’ 'ruling in Green v. County School Board of New Kent County VA in 1968. This decision compelled all school boards to devise plans aimed at dismantling segregated systems within their districts, aligning with the principles established by Brown v. Board of Education in 1954.</p><p> 21/34</p><p><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/TeachHistory" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>TeachHistory</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/BlackMastodon" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>BlackMastodon</span></a><br><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/Histodons" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>Histodons</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/History" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>History</span></a></p>
Dr. D. Elisabeth Glassco<p>Pres Richard Nixon built upon President Johnson's efforts in affirmative action through his Executive Order 11478, enacted on August 8, 1969. This order emphasized unilateral affirmative action in government employment. As a result, there was a significant increase in Black enrollment for the Harvard University class of 1969. </p><p> 20/34</p><p><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/TeachHistory" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>TeachHistory</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/BlackMastodon" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>BlackMastodon</span></a><br><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/Histodons" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>Histodons</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/History" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>History</span></a></p>
Dr. D. Elisabeth Glassco<p>Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s assassination in 1968 marked a significant moment, prompting students to urge colleges to intensify their endeavors towards greater representation of American society. In under a month following Dr. King's tragic demise, Harvard's admissions dean declared a pledge to enroll a significantly larger number of Black students compared to previous years.</p><p> 19/34</p><p><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/TeachHistory" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>TeachHistory</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/BlackMastodon" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>BlackMastodon</span></a><br><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/Histodons" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>Histodons</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/History" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>History</span></a></p>
Dr. D. Elisabeth Glassco<p>Pres Lyndon B. Johnson solidified the association through his own broader executive order. The term "affirmative action" gained momentum. On September 24, 1965, Johnson signed Executive Order 11246, replacing Kennedy's Executive Order 10925, and entrusted the secretary of labor with overseeing affirmative action measures. Additionally, in 1965, he created the Office of Federal Contract Compliance to further support these initiatives.</p><p> 18/34</p><p><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/TeachHistory" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>TeachHistory</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/BlackMastodon" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>BlackMastodon</span></a><br><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/Histodons" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>Histodons</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/History" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>History</span></a></p>
Dr. D. Elisabeth Glassco<p>While addressing the issue, President Kennedy acknowledged the longstanding presence of unwritten but influential quotas that allowed white men to dominate highly influential and desirable positions in society. However, it was only when faced with protests against this monopolization that he expressed his disapproval of quotas based on social status.</p><p> 17/34</p><p><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/TeachHistory" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>TeachHistory</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/BlackMastodon" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>BlackMastodon</span></a><br><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/Histodons" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>Histodons</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/History" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>History</span></a></p>
Dr. D. Elisabeth Glassco<p>When the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) suggested "compensatory" hiring programs aimed to give advantage to Black folks due to past victimization and the enduring consequences of historical mistreatment, many liberals pushed back against it. Adked about CORE's proposals, President Kennedy expressed his belief that society couldn't change the past & it was a mistake to introduce quotas based on religion, race, color, or nationality.</p><p> 16/34</p><p><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/TeachHistory" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>TeachHistory</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/BlackMastodon" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>BlackMastodon</span></a><br><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/Histodons" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>Histodons</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/History" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>History</span></a></p>
Dr. D. Elisabeth Glassco<p>In 1961, Pres Kennedy signed Executive Order 10925, establishing the President's Committee on Equal Employment & mandated federal contractors to "take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed, & that employees are treated fairly in employment, without regard to race, creed, color or national origin.” Over time, influenced by civil rights movement & social unrest, the concept gained traction in the field of education.</p><p> 15/34</p><p><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/TeachHistory" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>TeachHistory</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/BlackMastodon" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>BlackMastodon</span></a><br><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/Histodons" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>Histodons</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/History" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>History</span></a></p>
Dr. D. Elisabeth Glassco<p>President Dwight D. Eisenhower expanded on Roosevelt’s efforts through the implementation of Executive Order 10479 in 1953. This order gave rise to the Government Contract Committee, which aimed to combat discrimination. But, it was President John F. Kennedy who was the first president to link the term, affirmative action specifically with a policy meant to advance racial equality. </p><p> 14/34</p><p><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/TeachHistory" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>TeachHistory</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/BlackMastodon" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>BlackMastodon</span></a><br><a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/Histodons" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>Histodons</span></a> <a href="https://mastodon.social/tags/History" class="mention hashtag" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">#<span>History</span></a></p>
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